It is important to know the sound of the vowels and the diphthongs.

Family gathering in PNG

Vowels

Diphthongs

There are five diphthongs, viz.

AI-almost identical with the sound of the English letter "i."

AE-somewhat narrower than AI.

AO-a sound between the "ow" in "how" and the "ow" in "throw."

AU-almost identical with the sound of "ow" in "how."

EI-similar to the sound of "ei" in the English word "rein."

It is possible to write AI for AE and vice versa, and be sufficiently correct. The same may be said of AU and AO.

The combination IU is often used to denote the long "u" as in "rude." After "s," the "I" of "IU" takes on the function of an "h"; and so we spell the Pidgin-English word meaning "to shoot" as SIUTIM.

Spelling

The phonetic spelling has its problems, not merely because pronunciations and intonation vary all over the Territory, but also there is no authority to indicate a correct and constant orthography. RAT may be LAT in some parts. L and R are to a certain extent interchangeable - depending on the speaker. The same may be said of S and T, P and F, AI and E. An M may be inserted before a B, or and N dropped before a G.

At first sight, these idiosyncrasies of Pidgin-English may appear to make the language a difficult and untrustworthy one. But this is hardly so. It presents not one-tenth the difficulty encountered by the foreigner who learns English at, say, Cambridge and travels through the counties with their numerous dialects. The tyro certainly finds it awkward, but a little experience soon rights that.

How is the difficulty overcome here?

Several things have been taken into consideration when translating sounds into symbols. Origin, usage, most general pronunciation, meaning and simplicity of phonetic rendering have been considered when spelling a word capable of several spellings. In most cases, it is a question of whether we use an 1, for an R, a T for an S, a P for an F, or insert an M in front of a B. Both TAMBAK and TABAK are used for tobacco. We have rendered it as TAMBAK. WETSAN (sand) and WETMAN (white man) are better rendered so than by WAITSAN and WAITMAN respectively, because the former appear to be the more general pronunciation.

Consonants When the consonants appear in these pairs- SK, SL, SM, SN, SP, ST, SW, TR, BI,, 1311, PL, PR, KL, KW, they are pronounced as if an unaccented ''i" were between each pair of consonants; e.g. TRU-TIRU, SLIP-SILIP, etc.  They are frequently spelt with an "i" This should be avoided, however, as it leads to confusion in pronunciation and recognition of words.  NG is pronounced like the "ng" in "singer" and is sometimes found at the beginning of a word.  The "ng" of "finger" is spelt NGG. <<< The bow and arrow is still the most important tool a man has.

Nouns

Singular and Plural.-The singular form of tire noun suffers no change in form for the plural. The number of a noun is inferred from its nature, its qualifying adjectives and the text.

Articles.-Inflection, context and qualifying adjectives take their place. If precision is desired, WANPELA, (one) is used for the indefinite article, and "the" is represented by IA or HIA (this).

Examples

• TASOL DOG HIA NO LUKIM WANPELA MAN SINDAUN LONG NAMBIS
  • But the dog did not see a man sitting on the beach.
• DOG I NOGAT GRAS OLOSEM PISIN.
  • Dogs have not feathers like a bird.
• MI SAVE SIUTIM BALUS.
  • I can shoot pigeons.
• MI HARIM BALUS I KRAL. I STAP WE?
  • I heard a pigeon. Where is he?
• PLES I NOGAT MAN.
  • There are no men in the village.
• IM I MAN BOLONG SINGSING TRU.
  • He is a man fond of parties.

Case.-The form for all the cases is the same. The noun suffers no change of form or ending.

Gender.-In Pidgin-English as in English, gender depends on the presence or absence of sex. Adjectives meaning "male" and "female" are MAN and MERI respectively; e.g. DOG MERI is a female dog and a male infant is a PIKININI MAN.

Abstract Nouns.-There are quite a number of abstract nouns. To name but a few-SAVE (sagacity), DAI (death), KRANKI (foolishness), WOK (duty), POREIT (fear), LAIK (desire), and many others.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st	MI	YUMI	M I PELA
2nd	YU		YUPELA
3rd	I		I

YUMI is used by a person speaking within a group and identifying himself with the group:

• YUMI NOSAVE KAIKAI KUNAT.

  • We (you and 1) don't eat grass.

MIPELA is used to a third person outside a group with which the speaker identifies himself, but does not include the person addressed:

• MIPELA NOLUKIM DOG BOLONG YU.

  • We (my friends and 1) didn't see your dog.

This peculiarity, by the way, places Melanesian languages in the Austronesian group which includes Polynesian, Papuasian and Indonesian.

Demonstrative Pronouns.-

There are no Demonstrative Pronouns. A Demonstrative Adjective with a noun is used instead (vide Demonstrative Adjectives).

Interrogative Pronouns.-

Who and whom are translated by WUSAT.

• WUSAT I KAM?

  • Who is Corning,

• LUKIM WUSAT?

  • Whom did you see?

Whose is translated by BOLONG WUSAT. 

• BUK BOLONG WUSAT? 

  • Whose book is this?

What is translated by WONEM. 

• YU MEKIM WONEM? 

  • What are you doing?

Which is translated by WUSAT or by WONEM, according as It is used for a person or for a thing. Sometimes it is translated by a noun and a Demonstrative Adjective.

• WONEM MAN I TOK TRU? 

  • Which (of them) is telling the truth? 

Relative Pronouns

Who is translated by WUSAT. 

• HAI BOLONG YU LIKEM WUSAT I MEKIM? 

  • Did you actually see (the one) who did it?

Whom is omitted or circumvented. 

• IM DISPELA MAN YU LUKIM EM LONG ROT? 

  • Is this the man (whom) you saw on the road?

Whose and Which are treated in the same way. 

• YU SAVE DISPELA KIAP, GRAS BOLONGEN I WET? 

  • Do you know this Kiap whose hair is white?

ADJECTIVES

Proper.-The proper Noun is used as a Proper Adjective. 

• EM I SEPIK 

  • He is a Sepik (man). 

Quantitive-

• IM I GAT PLANTI MONI. 

  • He has much money. 

• LIKLIK DOK HIA KAIKAI PIG OLOGETA. 

  • This little dog ate the whole pig.

• MI KAIKAI LIKLIK RAIS PASTAIM. 

  • Let me have a little rice to eat.

    • N.B.-In this instance OLOGETA follows the noun. Preceding the noun it means "all of the . . . . 's."

Few may be translated by the phrase I NO PLANTI.

Other Quantitive Adjectives are rendered by nouns. 

Cardinal Numeral
One	wanpela	Six	sikispela
Two	tupela	Seven	sewenpela
Three	tripela	Eight	haetpela
Four	fuwapela	Nine	nainpela
Five	faipela	Ten	tenpela
Twenty	tupelaten	thirty	tripelaten

Ordinal Numeral
First	nambawan	Sixth	nambasikis
Second	nambatu	Seventh	nambasewen
Third	nambatri	Eighth	nambahaet
Fourth	nambafuwa	Ninth	nambanam
Fifth	nambafaip	Tenth	nambaten

Indefinite Numerals.-

• They are 

  • OLOGETA (all), 

  • PLANTI (many). 

  • I NO PLANTI (Few)

• MI SIUTIM OLOGETA PIG.

  • I shot all the pigs.

• PLANTI MAN I NO GAT MERI. 

  • Many men have no wives.

• MI LUKIM SAMPELA MAN, TASOL I NO PLANTI. 

  • I saw some men, but only a few.

Demonstrative Adjectives.-This, that, these and those are translated by HIA, EM . . HIA, DISPELA.

DOG HIA NOGAT TIS.
EM DOG HIA I NOGAT TIS.
DISPELA DOG I NOGAT TIS. This dog has no teeth.

The context indicates whether This or That, These or Those is meant. Dispela (tispela) is always singular.

Indefinite Demonstrative.-Such, Other, Same. 

• MAN OLOSEM I NOKEN LULUAI.

  • Such a man cannot be a Luluai.

• PUTIM ARAPELA BOKIS ANANIT. 

  • Put the other box underneath.

• MI SOIMAPIM LAPLAP BOLONG MI. YU MEKIM OLOSEM BOLONG YU.

  • I will sew my lavalava. You do the same (thing) to yours.

Another is translated by NARAPELA.

Interrogative Adjectives.-

Which and What are translated by

• WONEM MAN? 

  • Which man? 

• WONEM KAIKAI? 

  • What food?

Distributive Adjectives.-

They are circumvented by phrase or construction, but Every may be translated by OLOGETA. 

• OLOGETA MAN I H0LIM SPIA. 

  • Every man held a spear.

Comparison of Adjectives

The comparison of Adjectives is, as it rule, regular. Emphasis and voice inflection are sometimes used. There are two classes of regular comparison-the class which is compared like LIKLIK and the class which is compared like HANGGIRI

Adjectives describing qualities, dispositions and characteristics are compared like LIKLIK. All others are compared like HANGGIRI

ADVERBS

Almost any Adjective is capable of being used, without Inv change of form, as an Adverb. There is a class of Adjective, however, ending in -PELA, which drops the ending when used as an Adverb.

• EM I SITRONGPELA BOI, SAVE WOK SITRONG.

  • He is a strong boy and will work diligently.

• GUTPELA MAN HIA, SAVE HARIM GUT TOK BOLONG LULUAI.

  • This is a good man. He heeds well what his Luluai says.

Simple Adverbs.-

Adverbs of Manner and of Degree are straightforward. 

• EM I MEKIT I OLOSEM. 

  • He acted thus. 

• KLOSAP I PUNDAON. 

  • He almost fell over. 

Number.

• OLOTAIM EM I LEIS TASOL. 

  • He is always loafing. 

• MI KAM GEN LONG FIKUS. 

  • I came again to the fig tree, 

Time.

• LONG TAIM BIP0. 

  • A long time ago. 

• BIPOTAIM YU MEKIM OLOSEM. 

  • You did this same thing before. 

Place.

• PUTIM LONG HAP. 

  • Put it over there. 

• MI STAP NISAET. 

  • I remained inside. 

Probability is translated by AITING. 

• AITING DOG I KATKAT. 

  • Probably a dog ate it.

Interrogative Adverbs

Manner

• YU KAM OLOSEM WONEM? 

  • How did you come?  

Cause

• YU KAM BOLONG WONEM? 

  • Why did you come?

But censoriously-

• BOLONG WONEM YU KAM?

Why is translated in several ways-

• BOLONG WONEM

• HAUSAT

• WASAMARA

• WATPO

HAUSAT and WASAMARA are used emphatically. 

WATPO is most often used rhetorically:

• WATPO YUMI HADWOK TUMAS? PEI LIKLIK TASOL. 

  • Why should we work hard? We only get a small pay.

• HAUSAT YU NO KAM? 

  • Why did you not come.

WATPO is also used censoriously:

• WATPO YU NO PAINIM GUT?

  • Why didn't you make a good search?

Time

• YU KAMI LONG WONEM TAIM?

  • When did you come

Number

• HAUMAS TAIN YU KAM? 

  • How often did you come?

• HAUMAS KLOK?

  • What is the time?

Place

• YU KAM WE? 

  • From where did you come?

• YU GO WE?

  • Where are going?

Relative or Conjunctive Adverbs

• YU SAVE LONG WONEM EM I MEKIM 

  • Do you know when he did it?
    

• YU SAVE OLOSEM WONEM EM I KAM? 

  • Do you know how he came?
    

• YU SAVE BELONG WONEM EM I KAM? 

  • Do you know why he came?
    

• YU SAVE EM I KAM WE? 

  • Do you know whence he came?

Having the same form as the corresponding Adjective, Adverbs are compared in the same manner as the Adjectives.

PREPOSITIONS

There are only two prepositions but they cover the whole range of English translations, either by themselves, or in combination with a phrase. They are LONG and BOLONG.

• Into, Through, Under, Inside, In are translated by NISAIT LONG.

• LONG covers In, By, On, With, From, To, At.

• BOLONG covers For and Of. 

• MI GO LONG ROT LONG MANDEI LONG SALAMAUA NA SIUTIM BALUS LONG BUNARA BOLONG BARATA BOLONG MI, BOLONG KAIKAI

  • I went by road on Monday to Salamaua and shot a pigeon with the bow of the brother of me, for food.

BOLONG also means "for the purpose of," "because," "in order to," e.g.:

• IM I KATIM KANDA BOLONG PAITIM YUPELA

  • He is cutting a cane for the purpose of beating you. 

• IM I KRAI BOLONG KIAP I PAITEAL 

  • He is crying because the Kiap beat him. 

• IM I KAM BOLONG HARIM TOK. 

  • He came in order to hear the news.

LONG is also sometimes used as a conjunction. 

• IM I WET LONG PAPA I PINISTAIM. 

  • He is waiting until his father has finished his contract of service.

If is translated by SOPOS, as well as by TASOL. 

• YU KEN GO SOPOS YU WOK GUD. 

  • You may go if you work well. 

• YU NOKEN WOK LONG ME SOPOS YU NOSAVE KUK. 

  • You cannot work for me unless you can cook.

    • NB. SOPOS...NO means Unless

• TASOL IM I KAM, MI KEN HASKIM EM. 

  • If he had come, I could have asked him.

VERBS

Verbs in Pidgin-English are very simply conjugated and suffer a minimum of form change, Context and inflection generally distinguish between the tenses. There is no Passive Voice. The English Passive is directly translated into the Active or rendered by an Adjective. Past Participles are treated as Adjectives.

There are Transitive, Intransitive and Auxiliary verbs of which the Indicative only is conjugated, and that very simply. The subjunctive Mood is inferred.

Most Transitive verbs are distinguished by the fact that they end in -IM. Frequently an Intransitive verb is made Transitive by adding -IM

A few verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, e.g. KAIKAI.

The Verb "To Be.'~-There is no verb "to be." It is simply omitted and is understood.

Conjugations- Conjugations are regular and simple.

Only the Indicative Mood is conjugated. There is no change in the verb in the tenses--one form suffices for each tense for the singular and plural of all persons.

These are really the only tenses. All other tens", including the future, are implied or inferred. Bat if the immediate future is meant, i.e. "about to," it is conjugated thus:

Auxiliary Verbs.-There are only two Auxiliary Verbs-BIN and LAIK. BIN forms the Past Perfect Indicative Mood. LAIK forms the Immediate Future, but it must be distinguished from the Transitive Verb meaning "desire" or "wish." In this latter case it is generally followed by "i." The context also helps in distinguishing the one from the other.

• BALUS I LAIK GO NAU.

  • The aeroplane is about to go.

• IM I LAIK I GO LONG BALUS. 

  • He wishes to travel by aeroplane.

There are some verbs which are Passive in sense, but Active in form:

• MI FILIM NOGUT. 

  • I do not feel well.

• SUSU I SMEL NOGUT. 

  • The milk smells sour.

MISCELLANEOUS

Inflection- Inflection forms a very important part of Melanesian Pidgin-English. It not only has the more obvious function of marking interrogation, but also determines the meaning of words, the case
and number of nouns, the tenses of verbs, and, in fact, supplies a deal of the desiderata, of Pidgin-English. The use and function of inflection can be learned best by experience.

Order of Words.-There is a general resemblance to the order of words in English, but often a word depends for its meaning on its position in the sentence. Consequently the order of words is important.

• (a) MI TASOL I GO LONG KAIKAI

  • Only I went to eat.

• (b) MI GO LONG TASOL KAIKAI

  • I went only to eat.

• (c) MI GO LONG KAIKAI TASOL.

  • I only went to eat.

• (d) TASOL MI GO LONG KAIKAI.

  • But I went to eat.

• (e) IM I LUKIM TASOL MI.

  • He saw only me.

It must be said, however, that (h) and (e) are rare. The general practice in this case is to have TASOL follow the word it qualifies and place the emphasis on that word.

In statements, Adverbs of Time precede the subject and verb.

• ASTADEI MI LUKIM YU. 

  • I saw you yesterday.

But in a question, if the Adverb is stressed or emphasised above verb, the Adverb goes first. If the verb is stressed, then it goes

• MI LUKIM YU ASTADEI? 

  • Did I see you yesterday?

• ASTADEI MI LUKIM YU? 

  • Did I see you yesterday?

There is an exception to the rule for statements when a preposition is used to form in Adverbial phrase.

• OLI MEKIM LONG BIPO. 

  • They made them in the past; or 

    • They used to make them.
      

Adverbs of Place follow the sentence in statement and in question. 

• PUTIM LONG HAP. 

  • Put it over there.

• PUTIM LONG HAP?

  • Shall I put it over there?

• MI LAIK I SINDAUN NISAET. 

  • I would like to sit inside.

• YU GO WE? 

  • Where are you going?

• PAUS BOLONG MI STAP WE? 

  • Where is my suitcase?

The Adverb WESTAP goes first, however:

• OLEMAN STAP WE?

• WESTAP OL MAN? 

  • Where is everybody?

Adverbs of Manner follow:

• IM I WOKABAUT SITRONG. 

  • He walks vigorously.

• MEKIM OLOSEM WONEM? 

  • How did you do it?

However, in the Imperative, the Adverb goes first: SITRONG I GO!

See also Adverbs of Cause-Why. When MEKIM is used, meaning "to cause," it is followed immediately by the Infinitive:

• MI MEKIM SAVE YU! 

  • I'll teach you!

• KIAP MEKIM DAT PIG. 

  • The Kiap killed the pig.

Nating.- Many English words beginning with "un" can be translated by "nating." The word means "to lack," "be without," "unaccounted," "vacant," "unmarked," "of no account," etc. The preceding question or statement fixes the meaning of "nating."

Examples:

• I NO KARIM RUKSAK; I KAM NATING. 

  • He didn't bring a rucksack; he came without.

• SIT NO HASKIM, I GIPIM MI NATING.

  • I didn't ask for it; he gave it to me unasked (or of his own accord).

• YU LAIK KAIKAI PASTAIM? NOGAT, MI GO NATING.

  • Would you like to eat first? No. I'll go without eating.

• NO KESIM PEI: MIPELA WOK NATING.

  • We got no pay; we worked for nothing.

• I NO KAIUM MASKET: I GO NATING. 

  • He did not have a rifle; he went unarmed.

• NO, MI NO TOK: MI SINDAUN NATING. 

  • No, I did not speak; I just sat there.

• YU SAMTING NATING. 

  • You are of no account.

• YU GAT PLET? NOGAT MI KAIKAI NATING. 

  • Have you a plate? No, I eat without one.

• IM I KALABUS NATING. 

  • He was wrongfully imprisoned.

• LONGPELA NATING. 

  • Long and thin.

• MI TOK NATING. 

  • I surmise. I speak suppositionally.

PLEI- Besides meaning "to joke," "to chaff," "play a game," PLEI also means, generally in reference to male with female, have sexual intercourse." If you say TUPELA I PLEI and you refer to a man and a girl, the only meaning is "they had sexual intercourse."  But TUPELA I PLEI TENIS (or KRIKET, etc.) save you from an accusation of calumny. A master will not therefore refer to his wife's joking with the cook-boy as "MISIS NA KUK I PLEI LONG HAUS KUK." In any case natives consider immodest for a woman to exchange badinage with a man.

BOKIS.- In addition to its common meaning, BOKIS is also a polite term for the external female genitals. If you are referring to a suitcase of a trunk belonging to a woman don't say "BOKIS BOLONG MISIS." Similarly, a woman will not refer to "BOKIS BOLONG MI." 

A man can refer to "BOKIS BOLONG MI" or "BOKIS BOLONG MAsTA" with impunity. If you speak of a woman's suitcase, etc., use PAUS, KEIS, or LONGPELA BOKIS, RETPELA BOKIS, etc., without adding, in the latter two cases, "BOLONG MISIS."

PUSIM.- This word has only one meaning, i.e. "to copulate with." It does not mean "to push." SIUBIM is the word meaning "to push" or "to shove." You will not, therefore, when requiring a shove, invite or command a boy to PUSIM MI.

KILIM.- Does not mean to "kill," though it may result in death. It means "to strike" or "to hit hard." KILIM I DAI will translate "kill."

SELIM.- Means "to send" and not "to sell," though payment may be expected after sending. "To sell" is translated by PEIM.

PEIM.- Does not mean to pay (see above). The word "to pay" is BAIM which also means "to buy."

N.B.-There are no such words as: Whysat, gotim, wantini, tellim, broke, broke'im, callini (meaning to call), cryout.

If you tell your boy to WOKIM TEBOI,, don't be annoyed if he takes hammer and saw and begins to make a table. He probably wouldn't know you wanted him to LAINIM TEBOL. To clear the table is TEKEWEI, not RAUSIM.

Distinguish between MEKIM and WOKIM. The former means "to do" and the latter "to make."

SISTA AND BARATA may occasion confusion at first (see dictionary). A woman's sister is her BARATA and her brother is her SISTA. On the other hand, a man's brother is his BARATA and his sister his SISTA. The terms reach further than this, for they also include cousins. Cousins of the same sex are BARATA, of different sex-SISTA.

DAI also means "to faint," "to fall into a deep sleep" or "become hypnotized or anaesthetized." It does not conclusively mean "to die."

Digger History:  an unofficial history of the Australian & New Zealand Armed Forces